Spitzbergen / Svalbard

Area of archipelago: 62,700sq.km/24,200sq.mi

The Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard, centered on the main island of Spitzbergen (Spitsbergen), lies between the 74th and 81st parallels, some 700km/435mi north of the North Cape and 1,300km/810mi from the North Pole. With a total area of 62,700sq.km/24,200sq.mi, it has a population of only 3,700, who live in five settlements on the main island.

The main island, Spitzbergen (area 39,000sq.km/15,000sq.mi), is broken up by fjords cutting deep inland. To the northeast, separated from the main island by the Hinlopen Strait (usually ice-bound), is Nordaustland (North-East Land; 15,000sq.km/5,800sq.mi), which is almost completely covered by glaciers. To the southeast are Edgeøy (Edge Island; 5,000sq.km/1,930sq.mi) and Barentsøy (Barents Island; 1,300sq.km/500sq.mi). Farther south are the long, narrow island of Hopen and Bjørnøy (Bear Island), with meteorological stations. History

Vikings found their way to the archipelago in 1194, reporting that they had found the "cold coast" ("Svalbardi fundinn"). Then 400 years later, in 1596, it was rediscovered by the Dutch navigator Willem Barents, who named it Spitzbergen after its prominent peak. Searching for the Northwest Passage to China, he found only an abundance of seals and whales on the edge of the permanent ice cap. Soon afterwards the whaling settlement of Smeerenburg ("Blubber Town") was established on a flat peninsula on Amsterdamøy (Amsterdam Island), in the far northwest of Spitzbergen; but the whaling era lasted only a few decades, the whales and seals having been exterminated.

Thereafter, for many years, Spitzbergen was left to itself. During the 18th and 19th centuries a few Russian monks lived a hermit's life as fur-trappers. Towards the end of the 19th century Nansen's polar expeditions stimulated interest in the islands, and in 1899 a Norwegian seafarer named Søren Zachariassen discovered rich deposits of coal. In 1906 the first coal-mine on Spitzbergen was established by an American millionaire named Longyear, and the settlement which he founded was called Longyear City. In 1916 the mines were taken over by the Norwegian mining company SNSK, and Longyear City became Longyearbyen.

Subsequently other mining settlements were established by the Russians (Grumant on the Isfjord), the Dutch (Barentsburg on the Grønfjord) and the Swedes (Svea on the Van-Mijenfjord). The rich deposits of high-grade coal which Spitzbergen was now found to possess brought to the fore the question of sovereignty over the islands, which had not hitherto been settled; and in 1925, under the treaty of Sèvres, they were assigned to Norway, on condition that it would permit all the signatory states to carry on economic activities on an equal basis and would keep the islands permanently demilitarized.

Most of the mines were closed down during the great depression, and there now remain on Spitzbergen only the three Norwegian settlements of Longyearbyen (pop. 1,700), Ny Ålesund (pop. 70) - the world's most northerly settlement - and Sveagruva (pop. 30) and the two Russian settlements of Barentsburg (pop. 1,400) and Pyramiden (now a ghost town). The Norwegians and the Russians each produce around 250,000 tons of coal a year. High transport costs mean that the mines can be worked only with considerable subsidies; but in spite of the political thaw between East and West neither country seems willing to leave the other in sole possession.

Geology

Svalbard displays a very varied geological pattern, ranging from the Pre-Cambrian granite peaks in the northwest by way of the Carboniferous coal measures to the younger rocks of the Tertiary era in the center of the main island. Fossils dating back some 120million years show that at an early stage in the history of the earth this was a region of subtropical climate which moved steadily farther north as a result of continental drift.

Although Svalbard lies in the Arctic region its average temperatures, particularly on the west coast and in winter, are much higher than at other places in the same latitude. But even so average winter temperatures lie between -8° and -16°C (+18° and +3°F), rather lower in the north and east. The lowest-ever temperature, recorded in 1917, was -49°C (-56°F). Temperatures in July and August rise to an average of 5°C (41°F), the highest recorded being 22°C (72°F); but there may be frost and snow at any time of year. Offshoots of the Gulf Streambring higher temperatures along the west coast and ice-free waters between June and December.

Almost the whole of the east coast - like two-thirds of Spitzbergen - is covered with glaciers. Only in the central areas with their arid Arctic climate (annual precipitation only about 300mm/12in.) are there glacier-free zones of any size. The proximity of the sea leads to frequent fog; the sky is usually overcast but the weather dry. At Longyearbyen the midnight sun is visible from April 19 to August 24, while the Arctic night lasts from October 27 to February 15.Flora and fauna

The Arctic flora comprises some 140 different species, including low-growing flowering plants, ferns, mosses and lichens. The fauna includes some 30 species of seabirds, seals, polar bears, reindeer and Arctic foxes. Since 1973 the polar bear has been fully protected, and there are now estimated to be a few thousand of them, living mainly on the ice-covered east coast. There is always the possibility, even in summer, of encountering a polar bear on the west coast, and since they are extremely aggressive when hungry and may attack without warning visitors are advised to carry a rifle when outside the settlements.